الفهرس 
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Abstract
Originally, “tissue engineering” ment that living cells or biologically active substances are transferred in vitro into a synthetic or biological matrix, which is then implanted into the patient’s defect in order to induce biological regeneration of the destroyed tissue. Recently tissue engineering has become an interdisciplinary field that applies the principles of engineering and the life sciences to the development of biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve tissue function. It investigates the application of various natural and synthetic polymeric materials to the construction of extracellular matrices for in vitro cell culture and in vivo tissue regeneration. The loss or failure of an organ or tissue is one of the most frequent, devastating, and costly problems in healthcare. Current treatment modalities include organ transplantation, surgical reconstruction, use of mechanical devices, or supplementation of metabolic products. Tissue engineering, on the other hand, seems to provide a new solution to tissue loss. In cardiovascular tissue engineering, vascular grafts and heart valves have been fabricated by various technologies. Research on cardiac muscle tissue engineering has been delayed because of the difficulty of establishing myocardial cell sources. However, recent progress in stem cell biology has accelerated myocardial tissue engineering.